Gifford Garden Archives, July 1999 - June 2000

Gifford Garden Archives, July 2000 - June 2001

Week of 2 July 2001

If you're a gardener you've gotta love the growing season so far. What a welcome change from the summers of late 1990s. Let's hope that these generous rains keep on a' comin'. The only drawback (you've got to take the good with the bad) is a healthy crop of insects and fungal diseases.

Last week I honed in on biological controls for pests, specifically bacteria such as Bt and Bp. These products are perfectly safe to use and so effective on caterpillars and grubs. Recently, a new class of biological control agents labeled for common fungal diseases hit the market. Microbial fungicides are now available and provide control for a wide range of soil-borne fungal diseases. These microbial fungicides are reportedly very specific in seeking out and destroying the harmful fungi (fusarium basal rot; pythium, commonly referred to as damping-off; various blights and wilts; etc.), while not targeting the beneficial soil-inhabiting fungi. We are evaluating a brand of these new fungicides for control of damping-off with many annuals that we raise from seed for the Gifford Garden.

As visitors to the IES Greenhouse know, predatory insects introduced into many sections of the Greenhouse are an integral part of David Bulkeley's Integrated Pest Management (IPM) program for pest insect control. The Gifford Garden gardeners are seriously considering a similar strategy in the Gifford Garden for next season. Green lacewings, Trichogramma, lady beetles and others may be just the ticket for combating those aphids, thrips and scale insects that sometimes reach nuisance levels in the garden. Biological controls are my first preference in pest management, as they are completely safe for both the gardener and the environment, and if conditions are conducive to their well being, may establish sustainable populations in the garden as they have in the Greenhouse.

I also rely on non-biological controls in dealing with pests in the garden and landscape. For more than a generation gardeners have used horticultural oils to suffocate insects and their eggs. Today's new generation of oils are far superior (no pun intended, as horticultural oils are often referred to a "superior" oils), to oils of old. "Summer" oils can be used year round with little adverse effects on plants or humans and are very effective on aphids, mites, scale insects, leaf miners, and mealybugs. I like to use a new class of summer oils derived from vegetables such as cottonseed and rapeseed. These are as effective as their petroleum-based relatives, and pose no health risk (you can use them on vegetables right up to the day of harvest!). A product that I routinely use combines canola oil with pyrethrin (a botanical insecticide derived from the painted daisy). Pyola is effective on all stages of target insects, whereas most oils are primarily effective on their eggs. An added benefit is that this product has a residual repellent effect. I safely use Pyola on vegetables and fruits, ornamentals and even houseplants with no reservations. Faithful readers of this piece know that I'm fond of a neem-based insecticide which provides the coveted "silver bullet" for rose care in the Shankman Rose Garden. For years I would have to mix up separate batches of pesticides for use in the rose garden — one product to control insects, another for diseases (powdery mildew and blackspot). A new neem-based product derived for the seed of the margosa tree has worked wonderfully in the garden proving to be a very good insecticide and fungicide. It too possesses insect repelling qualities. Green Light Company's Rose Defense (telephone: 210-494-3481) is the pesticide that I'm currently using in the Shankman Rose Garden. (Note that this product is not labeled for food crops, whereas Gardens Alive!'s counterpart, Shield-All II All-Natural Fungicide, is).

I'd better give you the telephone number and website of my favorite mail-order organic products catalogue, Gardens Alive!: 812-537-8650. website: www.GardensAlive.com

Next week I'll finish this discussion on environmentally sensible methods of insect and disease control.

Brad Roeller
Manager of the IES Display Gardens

Week of 9 July 2001

How green is my garden? Pretty green indeed! This wonderful, rich shade of green could easily pass for late May or early June. With July's heat and the "spring" rains we have been receiving, you can almost see the plants grow. Let's hope Mother Nature continues to bless us with these wonderful, well-spaced rains!

Finishing the discussion of environmentally sensible pesticides, I have left one of my "favorites" one for last. [Dealing with the plethora of plant diseases in the garden is certainly not easy. Most gardeners rely on potent (and toxic!) chemical pesticides to do the job. I touched upon several reasons for avoiding these types of products (and boy, are the shelves full of them!) in the 6-18-01 edition of "From the Gifford Garden", which started this current discussion of alternative disease and pest controls]. This organically based product, Soap-Shield, available form Gardens Alive! (www.GardensAlive.com or 812-537-8650) is one of the new fungicidal soaps that have only recently become available. Soap-Shield combines a naturally occurring fatty acid (the soap) with copper. I have long used this naturally occurring element, copper (as well as sulfur), to deal with many plant diseases at IES. One of the problems with using copper is its potential for burning foliage of susceptible plants, especially when used in the heat of the summer, when, coincidentally, plant diseases are typically at their peak. Soap-Shield uses a much lower concentration of copper than other copper-based products, and is still very effective due to the synergistic action of the soap with the copper. It is completely safe to use and is labeled for crops; it is so safe that you can use it right up to the day of harvest.

The list of diseases of both food crops and ornamentals that this product is labeled for is quite impressive. I use it in the Gifford Garden for black spot and mildews (downy and powdery) on roses, certain rusts, and for gray mold (Botrytis paeoniae) on peonies. In the home vegetable garden it is perfectly safe to use (reading from the label) on your tomatoes to control anthracnose, bacterial spot, early and late blight, septoria leaf spot; neck rot on onions; bottom rot on lettuce; alternaria leaf blight on cukes ... the complete list goes on considerably! To sum it up, Soap-Shield is a quite-safe and environmentally sensible product that does the job.

Well, I'll try harder to keep on subject for the next several "From the Gifford Gardens" and concentrate on profiling great perennials and offering tips on how to grow them. It's just that when I see homeowners (and many professionals!) indiscriminately using potent and dangerous pesticides, I shake my head and think, "If they only knew...".

So off the soapbox and on to plants: Check out the Asiatic lilies blooming in the Gifford Garden. With weekly applications of the soap-based repellant Hinder, I've been able to keep deer from munching on their appetizing flower buds (ever had lily bud fritters? they're excellent). While hybrid lilies have been bred to be impressive, don't forgo introducing some of our native lilies into the garden. Four native lilies come to mind, 3 with nodding flowers and one with the more common upward facing blossom. The Canada lily (Lilium canadense), Michigan lily (L. michiganense), and the Turk's cap lily (L. superbum) are the "nodders" while the wood lily (L. phildelphicum) is the upright bloomer. All are excellent for the mixed border where partial shade is present. Check them out and see why lilies are referred to as the "aristocrats of the garden".

Brad Roeller
Manager of the IES Display Gardens

Week of 16 July 2001

Spectacular! The Gifford Garden is literally awash with color this week. Listing the perennials in bloom this week literally filled 2 full pages on my steno pad, and that was only a partial list at that! Mid-July is a great time to visit the Gifford Garden to see and evaluate perennials worthy for inclusion in your garden. One interesting environmental phenomenon with this growing season is that the initiation of bloom of most of the perennials is several weeks ahead of schedule (several of our monkshoods are in flower!). Beats me — maybe, as our IES scientists say, "there's a paper in it".

Many of this week's bloomers appear on my "Best of the Best" list of perennials for local gardens. Platycodon grandiflorus, balloon flower, is blooming its head off in and around the parking lot; combined with concurrently blooming daylilies, the combination is striking. So far (knock on wood!) I've been able to enjoy the majority of daylily bloom through weekly applications of deer repellants (I suggest alternating a taste repellant, such as one of the many hot sauces, with an odor-based repellant, such as Hinder). Geranium sanguineum var. striatum 'Splendens' and G.s. 'Lancastriense' are offering a very respectable second flush of bloom (we like to shear ours immediately after the early spring flowering to foster this rebloom). Rudbeckia fulgida var. sullivantii 'Goldsturm' along with the "uncultivated" R. maxima, the great coneflower, and the closely related grey-headed coneflower, Ratibida pinnata begin their welcome and extended blooming time. While the much-ballyhooed Goldstrum black-eyed Susans (technically all Rudbeckias are coneflowers) is a wonderful and prolific perennial, the aforementioned natives rank a close second!

A couple of other "Best of the Best" perennials in bloom this week are the equally prolific thread-leaf coreopsis, or tickseed, Coreopsis verticillata. The cultivars 'Moonbeam' and 'Zagreb' are in bloom now, to be followed by the taller and equally impressive tall coreopsis, C. tripteris, a wonderful native with blooms topping 6' to 7' or more in height. Bend one of them down to enjoy the anise-like scent. The native black snakeroot, Cimicifuga racemosa, is likewise in bloom this week. I must admit the scent of their Asian counterparts (C. simplex et. al.) is superior to that of our native. One of the most asked-about snakeroots in the garden (and at our Plant Sales) is the cultivar of our native, 'Brunette'. This striking plant has a dark purple hue to the stems and foliage, and for some reason is better smelling and blooms later than the species. Purple-headed coneflowers (no, not Rudbeckias but Echinacea purpurea) are just beginning to do their thing. These plants easily qualify for the select "Best of..." list. We have several cultivars of this native in the garden, with 'Bright Star' being one of my favorites. Concluding the bloomers that appear on the select list (what a time I had limiting this list to only 38 of the over 100 perennials that are on my list of "Low Maintenance Perennials") is the prolific and never out-of-bloom corydalis, Corydalis lutea.

I haven't even scratched the surface of what's in bloom this week! Do stop in and enjoy the myriad of both the stalwarts-of-the-garden and the many unusual perennials such as the magnificent Russian sunflower we collected in the wild years ago, Inula magnifica. We attempt to label all the plants in the garden, but invariably a few go unlabelled. Ask one of the knowledgeable gardeners for assistance in identifying and/or growing tips.

Brad Roeller
Manager of the IES Display Gardens

Week of 23 July 2001

"What wrong with the locust?" If I've had one person ask me that question, I've had a dozen. This is the second year in a row where our black locust have been subjected to a serious infestation of locust leafminer, Odontota dorsalis, leaving our prolific locust groves appearing to have been swept by fire. The adult beetle is readily apparent this time of year to those of us who have a hammock under an infested tree.

The damage, quite visible in the last few weeks, is from the adult beetle, which has been skeletonizing the under-surface of the leaves. From my informal "windshield survey", the infestation sites are localized, but unfortunately heavy. Don't bother to spray your insecticide "de jour" as the damage has about run its course, and there is no need for that "feel good" spraying! In some areas of the range of locust, particularly Pennsylvania, West Virginia, and Ohio, serious mortality from this insect occurs regularly. This typically happens when a heavy spring larval hatch defoliates the first flush of leaf growth, then the tree is defoliated again by the mid-summer adult beetles. If this happens in successive years, mortality can result. Fortunately, we have not had infestations in the last few years that rival the ones reported in the literature. There are several natural parasites that devour both the adult beetles and/or the larvae. Lets hope that with the growing "outbreaks" of this damaging insect, the populations of these natural predators will likewise grow.

The "Wilt Chamberlain" of the Gifford Garden has got to be the cup plant, Silphium perfoliatum, one of those great native sunflowers that are in their glory in the dog days of summer. Sunflowers are king (they rule!, as teenagers say) this time of year in the Gifford Garden. I can't say enough about this transplant from the plains. It is probably the boldest of our perennials, towering well over 7' in height, with those unyielding thick square stems. This perennial has withstood every summer thunderstorm since planted several years ago, and has yet to require a support stake! The paired clasping leaves were used by plains Indians, as they make a convenient and ready "cup" to drink from, hence the common moniker. A close "cousin" of the cup plant is the compass plant, S. laciniatum. Very similar in appearance to the cup plant, this prairie dweller has even bigger and more deeply cleft leaves. Kids (and adults) enjoy this "mysterious" plant because the lower leaves stand in a vertical position and tend to point in a north-south direction. Now you know why plains Indians never got lost! Evolving in a grass ecosystem, these tough perennials are extremely drought tolerant (not much gets through the root system of grasses) and have low fertility needs (ditto). I have never observed any insect or disease problems associated with these plants. The prolific sunflower blossoms are an attention getter, especially when perched atop those 7' stems. All in all, they are great plants for you bold gardeners! Enjoy these natives, along with their Asian counterparts, Inula magnifica and Telekia speciosa throughout the Gifford Garden.

Don't miss other great native sunflowers in the garden: the thin-leaf sunflower, Helianthus decapetalus, the willow-leaf sunflower, H. salicifolius, and the woodland sunflower, H. divaricatus. All are truly excellent, care-free perennials assured to please. Ask one of our gardeners to point out the unusual sport of the native false sunflower, Heliopsis helianthoides. This particular plant has deep red stems and a reddish hue to the foliage. The single-blossom, typical of the species, has a non-typical red-orange halo surrounding the disc. Both these attributes are highly unusual and very ornamental. We are researching the ancestry of this specimen while we propagate it. If collected from the wild and brought into the garden as many of our native perennials were, you may someday see a new introduction into the trade. Hum ... how does Heliopsis helianthoides 'IES' sound? No? I'll work on it.

Brad Roeller
Manager of the IES Display Gardens

Week of 30 July 2001

OK rain gods, do your thing. Up until the last few weeks, we have been downright blessed with a great growing season in so far as moisture, but unless the weather patterns change for the better, we might be in the midst of the dreaded summer drought. A few tips for getting your landscape through dry times:

• Stay off your lawn! Disregard the somewhat "shaggy look" and avoid the temptation to mow. Try and avoid lawn-related activities such as summer ball games, etc. on turf this time of year. While I don't advocate watering established turf at any time (what a waste of water!), if you should choose to do so, water in the early morning (reduces evaporation), and water deeply-at least 1" of water per week, or until nature takes over (put a pie tin out under the sprinkler to gauge the amount). Do not fertilize stressed turf, that's the last thing the poor lawn needs! Lawns will go senescent during times of drought and quickly turn brown. This is a "life-saving" measure where it is more beneficial to basically shut down and not photosynthesize than to try to struggle to grow. If your lawn goes senescent don't water, you will only make the situation worse. Let your lawn proceed with this natural preparation in case the drought continues for an extended period of time. Those of you who are contemplating putting in a new lawn or renovating an existing one (this is a job best done about a month from now), take the time to investigate those great tall turf-type fescues on the market, as they are very drought tolerant (more on this in upcoming "From the Gifford Garden").
• If you haven't already done so, blanket your flower garden with a summer mulch. Make sure that the plants are deep-watered (naturally or artificially) beforehand. We like the natural, not dyed, spruce bark mulch. (For more on mulch go to the archives at www.ecostudies.org/welcome/perennial.htm and call up the 6-12-00 edition of "From the Gifford Garden".)
• Water deeply. Perennials should receive about ½ to 1" of water per week. If you have to hand water, be sure to moisten the soil to a depth of 1 foot or so. Water early in the morning, so foliage has a chance to dry out. This will help minimize disease problems. Evaluate drought stress in early morning or on cloudy days. Plants that are exhibiting mid-day wilt (a water-saving plant response which occurs in times of drought on sunny days) are water stressed and merit attention.
• Select drought tolerant perennials and woody plants for your garden. Check out some of the great selections in our Xeriscape Bed. Many of our wonderful native prairie perennials have evolved in low-moisture environments. Our native sunflowers and coneflowers are some of the most popular plants in the Gifford Garden and literally thrive in hot, dry summers.
• Use commercial hydrogel when planting containers, annuals, or moisture-loving perennials. These inert polymers absorb hundreds of times their weight in water and slowly release water in the root zone for use by plants throughout the growing season.

Any of you shamen (or sha-women) out there-how about a rain dance!! Next week I'll offer some of the outstanding drought-tolerant perennials for your consideration.

Brad Roeller
Manager of the IES Display Gardens

Week of 6 August 2001

I typically write this piece a few days before it gets posted on our website, and as of the writing of this edition, we are still very dry! About the only upside to this current drought is it offers the opportunity to really see how perennials cope with the lack of moisture. While most plants we profile in "From the Gifford Garden" are selected for their drought tolerance (among other admirable characteristics) many have evolved in environments where the lack of moisture is inherent for success. Many prairie perennials, such as the outstanding cup plant, Silphium perfoliatum, profiled last week (the "Wilt Chamberlain" of the Gifford Garden), simply thrive in the heat and dry conditions of mid-summer. Its thick, square stems store an amazing amount of water and the rough-textured, hairy leaves reduces moisture loss due to transpiration. Desert plants such as the prickly pear cactus, Opuntia humifusa, not only store water in their fleshy leaves, but their spines serve a unique role. In addition to being a defensive tool, warding off cactus-munching deer and other animals, when the nighttime temperatures plummet, dew forms on the spines and drips to an awaiting root system. Isn't evolution neat! And yes, prickly pear do quite well up in these northern latitudes. Many shade-loving perennials have likewise adapted in moisture-starved environments. For the next few weeks I'll be highlighting perennials from the "Low Maintenance Perennials" list which exhibit a greater degree of drought tolerance. Take note you landscape designers: drought tolerance should become an important criterion for plant selection in your garden and landscape designs. Remember the water restrictions of a couple summers ago?

First the woodlanders: A recent walk through the Gifford Garden was a real eye-opener. In preparation for this article, I noted which of the shade-loving perennials were not showing any signs of drought-related stress. The following plants are taking the current parched conditions in stride: (Remember, we typically do not water established perennials as part of our evaluation program.)

• Hellebores made the cut for drought tolerance. Not only are the remnants of the early April blooms still visible (and not at all displeasing), but the foliage and general vigor of the plants seem quite good. The evergreen types in particular, Helleborus foetidus, H. angustifolius, et. al., with their thick, waxy leaves and stout stems, must have an impressive reserve of water to see them through times like these.
• The Solomon's seals likewise do not show any adverse effects from the lack of moisture. Our native small Solomon's seal, Polygonatum biflorum, as well as the impressive great Solomon's seal, P. commutatum, both look as good today as they did in spring. This also hold true for some of our non-native Solomon's seals in the garden: P. odoratum 'variegatum', the popular variegated fragrant Solomon's seal, as well as the diminutive little Asian Solomon's seal, P. falcatum.
• Those of you who know me know my feelings toward barrenworts (Epimediums). They are one of my absolute favorite perennials, so tough and adaptable, and so versatile for design purposes. With all their great attributes it's easy to overlook their excellent drought tolerance.

More drought tolerant perennials for your consideration next week. Think rain!

Brad Roeller
Manager of the IES Display Gardens

Week of 13 August 2001

At the writing of this edition we continue to suffer yet another day of this nasty heat wave. Hopefully the promised change in weather patterns will bring relief from not only the heat but also the lack of rain. Last week I began highlighting plants in the Gifford Garden that are particularly tolerant of extended dry conditions. Continuing with this theme, and staying with the shade-loving perennials, more selections for you perennial aficionados:

• Bugbanes, Cimicifuga ssp., in addition to being outstanding low maintenance perennials, are not bothered by summer droughts. Our native black snakeroot, C. racemosa, along with its Asian counterparts Kamchatka bugbane, C. simplex and C. japonica var. acerina are simply all great perennials. While the native has been in full bloom for weeks, its foreign cousins are just beginning to come into their own. While I'm unabashedly a native plant lover, the indigenous bugbane's fragrance is somewhat unpleasant (the derivation of the botanic name, Greek cimex, meaning "bug" and fugure, "to drive away" led to the common moniker, bugbane). However, the Asian bugbanes emit a pleasing odor. Without question, the new purple-leaved cultivars of our native bugbane are simply the best. Check out Cimicifuga racemosa 'Atropurpurea' in the shade section of the garden (adjacent to the Gifford House patio) — it's a show-stopper. We'll have a good supply of another purple-leaved favorite, 'Brunette', at our fall plant sale. An added bonus: the fragrance of these cultivars is quite nice.
• Gingers, Asarum ssp., are likewise very drought tolerant. The evergreen ones in particular withstand prolonged drought conditions. A recent inspection of plantings of our native ginger, A. canadense, the Canadian wild ginger, found that it too withstands dry conditions quite well. Our native evergreen ginger, A. shuttleworthii, the mottled ginger, appears unaffected by the drought, as does its European counterpart A. europaeum.
• While the spring flowering anemones are typically senescent by this time of the growing season, with only their attractive seed heads left to add interest to the late summer garden, their fall-flowering counterparts show a good degree of drought tolerance. If properly sited (dappled or partial shade, avoiding locations of direct mid-day sun) and planted (supplemented with a generous amount of organic matter), the late-blooming anemones will be a dependable and prolific addition to your garden. The late fall "cottony" seedheads of Japanese anemones are simply spectacular.
• A few of the geraniums we grow in the Gifford Garden are likewise good candidates for inclusion in this select group of perennials. The bigroot crane's-bill, G. macrorrhizum, and G. renardii, with its unusual velvety, sage-like gray-green foliage, are two of the many geraniums that are looking surprisingly well in spite of the drought.

Next week: sun worshipers that tolerate dry conditions.

Mark your calendars: IES Fall Plant Sale is September 8^th and 9^th. More to follow.

Brad Roeller
Manager of the IES Display Gardens

Week of 20 August 2001

We're still about 3 inches behind in rainfall for this point in the growing season. So, more about perennials that are especially adapted to withstand the trials and tribulations of a prolonged dry spell.

This week the sun worshipers — those low maintenance perennials that I've found to be particularly well suited to cope with drought. I've divided up this surprisingly large list into two groups: the"A" Team perennials, which show outstanding drought tolerance, and the"B" Team selections. The latter perennials don't quite match up to their big-league counterparts in the category of drought tolerance. "B" teamers will show symptoms of drought stress and may require supplemental watering from time to time, but will still look far better than the great majority of the rest of your perennials during times of drought. Plants on these lists were selected from hundreds of perennials that we have been evaluating for years in the Gifford Garden. From time to time many have been featured in "From the Gifford Garden" under the heading of "Best Perennials for Northern Gardens". Soon we will be offering a complete list of these plants along with cultural requirements, best cultivars, etc. on our website under the heading "Low Maintenance Perennials". In the near future a more complete IES brochure of the same title will be available at the Gifford Garden.

The "A" Team:

Achillea (yarrow)
Armeria (sea pink, sea thrift)
Artemisia (wormwood)
Asclepias (butterfly weed)
Belamcandra (blackberry lily)
Coreopsis (tickseed)
Eryngium (sea holly)
Euphorbia (spurge)
Knautia (knautia)
Lavendula (lavender)
Limonium (statice)
Liriope (creeping lily-turf)
Perovskia (Russian sage)
Platycodon (balloon flower)
Pycnanthemum (mountain mint)
Ratibida (gray-headed coneflower)
Salvia (perennial sage)
Sedum (stonecrop)
Sempervivum (hens-and-chicks)
Silphium(cup and compass plant)
Solidago (goldenrods)
Stokesia (Stokes' aster)
Yucca (yucca, Adam's needle)

The "B" Team:

Echinacea (purple coneflower)
Eupatorium (Joe-Pye weed)
Filipendula (queen-of-the-prairie)
Helenium (sneezeweed)
Helianthus (sunflower)
Heliopsis (false sunflower)
Inula (inula)
Nepeta (catmint)
Rudbeckia (coneflowers)
Stachys(lamb's ear)
Telekia (oxeye daisy)
Vernonia (N.Y. ironweed)
Veronica (speedwell)

Mark your calendars: IES Fall Plant Sale:

Sat. Sept 8^th (10am-4pm) & Sun. Sept. 9^th (11am-4pm)

We feature low maintenance and unusual perennials at great prices!

Brad Roeller
Manager of the IES Display Gardens

Week of 27 August 2001

Gardening with tropicals can add a new dimension to your landscape. In trying to create a jungle-like atmosphere, we've filled whiskey barrels with all kinds of lush foliage plants. The large, elongated, light green leaves of Ensete ventricosum (banana) surrounded by the dark red foliage of Dahlia 'Bishop of Llandaff' demonstrates a bold contrast between leaf color and texture. Colocasia esculenta, commonly known as elephant ears, has huge heart-shaped leaves measuring up to 3 feet in length - how dramatic! Ipomoea 'Margarita' (sweet potato vine) cascades to the ground, covering the barrels and softening the look of these large containers. Many varieties of Solenostemon scutellarioides (coleus) such as 'Alabama Sunrise' and 'Black Knight' can be used to brighten up shady areas, but will also perform well in the sun. Beyond just foliage, vibrant flowers in shades of orange, red, yellow and magenta give many lush tropicals even more presence. Hummingbirds are drawn to these colors and visit this part of the garden frequently.

At a time when many of the perennials seem to be fading in the heat of the summer these tropical plants absolutely flourish. Keep them watered and fertilized throughout the season and by August you'll have a tremendous show of color and texture.

P.S FALL PLANT SALE is coming!

Saturday, September 8^th from 10 a.m. - 4 p.m.
Sunday, September 9^th from 11 a.m. - 4 p.m.

Diane Fagergren
Perennial Gardener

Week of 3 September 2001

This is the time of year to start or renovate a lawn. The cool nights, warm days, and heavy dews of mid-September all are to the liking of what we refer to as "cool-season" grasses. The IES grounds crew is taking advantage of the season and, with my help, is sowing grass seed as fast as we can. Over the next few "Highlights" I'll be covering some selected aspects of successful lawn establishment.

A primary consideration should be what type of grass seed to select. First of all, choose only quality grass seed, avoiding the "grass seed is grass seed" sales pitch. Check the label to see what the components of the mix are. Obviously there is a "sunny mix" for sunny areas, and "shady mixes" for the shade, but what are in these mixes? Manufacturers have matched various site conditions to the best grasses that will perform in those circumstances. I'm particularly fond of the new turf-type tall fescues. In the Gifford Garden I have replaced virtually all the sod, which was "Grade A" Kentucky Bluegrass, with tall fescues. There are over 125 cultivars of turf-type tall fescues. Today the newer cultivars show distinct improvement in growth habit, disease resistance, genetic color, heat and drought tolerance, and water use.

While tall fescues thrive best in fertile, well-drained, fine textured soils, they will survive even the most inhospitable of conditions because of their extensive root system. It tolerates low fertility, yet responds to fertilization. This grass grows better on alkaline and saline soils than many other cool-weather grasses. While being highly drought resistant, tall fescue also withstands wet soils and survives compacted soils. This versatile grass will remain green during adverse summer conditions (usually the norm around here!) when other grasses go dormant.

Several of the newer varieties of tall fescues are "enhanced" with endophytic organisms. Endophytes are fungal organisms that live symbiotically within the cells of the grass plants and reproduce during cell division. They create a bitter tasting toxin that repels most insects and kills many of those that continue to feed. If you have ever had to battle chinch bugs, bill bugs, or sod webworms, endophyte enhanced seed is for you.

Check out the great website: www.ntep.org This is the National Turfgrass Evaluation Program which annually tests virtually all grass seed in varying locations throughout the US and provides information on the performance of commercially available turfgrass cultivars under regional conditions. These trials provide an excellent database for selecting those cultivars which are best adapted to your local conditions. A few years ago, when I decided to "can" the Kentucky Bluegrass due to its high water and fertility needs, I used this database to select a mix for the Gifford Garden. The mix I choose was a commercially available one from the Lofts Seed, Inc. It is their "Athletic Field Mixture" and is comprised of 30% Tribute Tall Fescue, 30% Rebel Junior Tall Fescue, 20% Rebel 3D Tall Fescue, 10% Sydsport Kentucky Bluegrass, and 10% Palmer Perennial Ryegrass. It has proven a tough, durable drought tolerant turf, which requires minimal fertilization and looks every bit as good as Kentucky Bluegrass.

Enough on grass seed. Oh, I almost forgot: when checking the label to see which cultivars are in the mix and whether the seed has been inoculated with endophytes, check the "inert" ingredients and weed seed content. It isn't quality seed if that component adds up to much more than 5%. Finally, only use fresh seed as the germination success drops off the charts after a year or so.

Next week, methods and tips on establishing grass in your landscape.

And, in the meantime, don't forget the FALL PLANT SALE

Saturday, September 8^th from 10 a.m. - 4 p.m.
Sunday, September 9^th from 11 a.m. - 4 p.m.

Brad Roeller
Manager of the IES Display Gardens

Week of 10 September 2001

October is closer than we think, and early October is generally the last opportunity to successfully sow grass in our area. Last week I covered the different types of seed mixes, and this week I'll discuss methods of creating a new lawn and renovating a weak, patchy lawn. First, a new lawn, typically a task required after construction projects:

• Prepare the subgrade by mechanically loosening the areas where vehicles or other construction-related activities have compacted the soil. This is best done with a rototiller or the "teeth" of a backhoe. The subgrade should allow for a minimum of 6 inches of topsoil to achieve the "final" grade.
• Add the necessary topsoil to bring the area "to grade". I recommend that the final few inches of soil be screened loam topsoil for ease of raking. Check the pH of the topsoil, utilizing an inexpensive Cornell Kit, or one of the many pH meters available at garden centers.
• Once the topsoil has been raked (by all means, purchase a wooden "grading" rake as it sure beats an iron "garden" rake), add lime or sulfur as needed to adjust the pH to the 6.5 to 7.0 range. To increase the pH for a loam soil from 5.0 to 6.5, add 10.6 lbs. of lime per 100 sq. ft. To increase the pH from 6.0 to 6.5, add 4.1 lbs./100 sq. ft. To decrease the pH of a loam soil, add sulfur. To change from 8.0 to 6.5, add 2 to 3 lbs./100 sq. ft. To change from 7.5 to 6.5, add 1 to 1 ½ lbs./100 sq. ft.
• Broadcast a "starter" fertilizer as per label directions. A "cyclone" type spreader is the simplest for this task. If you haven't calibrated your spreader, start on a low setting and go over the area more than once to achieve the desired application rate. (This winter I'll discuss some tips for calibrating your lawn spreaders.)
• Spread peat moss over the entire area at about a 1 inch + thickness.
• Rototill to a 2 - 3 inch depth to incorporate the soil amendments.
• Rake to achieve the final grade and seedbed.
• Broadcast the seed evenly. I have found that the hand-cyclone spreaders work best as you have more control over the seed dispersal and rate than with their larger counterparts. As with the fertilizer, unless you are an accomplished "seed-sower", start with a light covering and go over a second time to achieve the desired coverage. Most seed mixes recommend 6 to 8 lbs. of seed per 1000 square feet. I like to add a pound or two of annual rye to my seedmix to function as a "nurse crop". This seed will germinate within a few days, and serves to shelter the slower germinating perennial grasses from the "elements". It also helps to stabilize the soil and decrease the seed washing and erosion on slopes.
• Using the back of a standard metal spring rake (the type you rake leaves with), "sweep" a thin layer of soil (a 1/8-1/4-inch covering is all that is necessary) over the seed. You should do this in even rows working in one direction.
• Roll, with a hand roller weighing a minimum of 200 lbs. the entire area.
• Shake out a thin layer of straw or hay over the entire area. If done correctly, you should just be able to see soil below the shaken-out straw. Remember that hay contains a lot of miscellaneous seed that can germinate in your seedbed; whereas straw is relatively seed-free.
• Once the seed is wet (a heavy dew will accomplish this), it is important to keep the seed moist by light overhead watering. Once germinated, the new seedlings will require less frequent watering, usually every two to three days.
• After the new grass seedlings are readily visible through the straw, carefully remove the bulk of the straw with a 5-tine fork or "manure" fork. Do not rake the straw off, as you will uproot the delicate, new roots of the grass seedlings.
• The new lawn should get about an inch of natural rainfall or irrigation per week until the growing season is over.

As usual, I'm out of space! I'll finish off lawn seeding with renovating a weak or patchy lawn next week.

Brad Roeller
Manager of the IES Display Gardens

Week of 17 September 2001

The very last chance to germinate grass seed in our region is closing in on us. Last week I passed on some tips for starting a new lawn. This week it will be on renovating a patchy, weak lawn.

If the area that is in need of attention is relatively large (more than a few hundred square feet in area), the best approach is to "nuke" the whole area with Roundup (a 1 ½ to 2% formulation is adequate, i.e. about 2 oz. per gallon of water) to eliminate the weak grass as well as perennial and any annual weeds that are present. The only drawback to this approach is that you must wait a minimum of 10 days after the herbiciding to sow grass seed. After the treated vegetation has "browned", usually in about 10 days, you must mow it at the lowest lawnmower setting. With a bamboo or iron spring rake, thoroughly rake out the existing thatch as well as any treated grass and/or weeds that will come free. If you are not favorably disposed to this rigorous task, rent a power rake at any of the "weekend warriors" rental center. The next step is to loosen the top of the soil surface to prepare a seed bed for the grass seed. This is accomplished by raking the area with an iron grading rake. Once again, there seems to be a tool for every task. You can accomplish this step, as well as the actual seeding, by renting a slit-seeder, which not only slices the soil but deposits the seed in the slices during the same operation; a really neat machine that I have utilized many times out here at IES. If you are doing it the "manly" method (i.e. with the iron rake), the next step would be to sow the seed at the recommended rate with a cyclone-type seeder. With the back of a spring rake, employ the "sweeping" technique discussed last week to turn over whatever soil or leftover dead vegetation remains to slightly cover the grass seed. Roll the area with a drum-type roller, as described last week and cover the area with a light covering of well-shaken out straw (remember, you want to just be able to see soil between the straw ). Water the seed as per last week's guidelines. I generally do not incorporate a "starter" fertilizer when doing lawn renovation, as I did with new lawn establishment. Rather, I wait for the seed to germinate, and when the seedlings are about an inch or two high, I give the new lawn a light fertilization with either the aforementioned fertilizer or one of the specially formulated late season fertilizers typically referred to as "winterizer" fertilizers.

For seeding small, bare spots within an existing lawn, I employ the following method: With an iron grading rake, I loosen the soil within the bare spots and remove any thatch or weedy vegetation. Next, in a wheelbarrow, I mix with screened topsoil, the desired grass seed with a starter fertilizer. This "all-in-one" mix is shoveled onto the bare spots. With the back of your iron rake, level the topsoil/seed mix. Firm the loose soil by tamping it with your rake. To maintain my sanity, I generally do not try to cover these bare spots with straw. However, it is a good idea to add about 25%, by volume, annual rye to "nurse" the slower to germinate perennial grass seeds in your mix.

One last tip for thin lawns is to "top dress" the lawn with a soil/compost mix that has grass seed and starter fertilizer incorporated in it. This is simply broadcast by hand (i.e. shovel) over the thin areas and leveled with the back of a rake, or mechanically broadcast utilizing a heavy-duty cyclone-type spreader uniformly over the area. The results of this operation are truly rewarding.

Brad Roeller
Manager of the IES Display Gardens

Week of 24 September 2001

It's hard to believe that the summer is coming to an end already. While you are cutting back your perennial beds, why not plant some flowering bulbs so you can start off the upcoming spring with lots of color!

First, we really should have at least one good frost before you start to plant your bulbs. Then pick a site that's suitable. Bulbs like a well-drained soil and a sunny location. The soil should be rich in organic matter. By incorporating manure, compost, and some sand, you will increase the drainage and organic content of the soil. The addition of bone meal in the bottom of the hole will help to promote strong and healthy growth. You can top dress with a commercial fertilizer after planting. I don't recommend fertilizer in the hole at the time of planting, as it can burn the small, tender roots.

The planting depth is generally 3 times the height of the bulb. Space the bulbs approximately 3 times their width apart with the pointed end of the bulb facing upward. Whether you plant in a mass or individually depends on the effect you want to achieve. I love to see daffodils planted in substantial clumps. They create a very natural effect within the landscape especially when a few random bulbs are placed in between the large waves of color.

As the foliage emerges in the spring, fertilize with a commercial bulb fertilizer. Another application is advantageous in the fall. After they finish blooming, cut back the spent flowers to help strengthen the bulbs for the following year. Let the foliage die back until it is brown before removing it. This is actually a food source for the bulb.

If you are planting bulbs and have a rodent problem, it is a good idea to incorporate oyster shells in the soil. This will discourage them from digging up your newly planted bulbs. Vole Bloc and Repel can help to deter these pesky critters. Mulching can also ask for trouble, especially with tulips. It makes a nice cozy environment for the voles in winter months and encourages them to feast in that location.

So for a little extra effort this fall, you will be rewarded tremendously in the springtime. How wonderful to start the season off with a splash of color! Plants some bulbs this fall and continue to enjoy them from year to year as they multiply in your garden.

Diane Fagergren
Perennial Gardener

Week of 1 October 2001

"Home, home on the range where the deer and the antelope play"... Walking along the trail that trail that Custer took on his way to the Little Bighorn. Standing where Lewis and Clark first viewed the badlands of southwest North Dakota. Humbled by the vast expanses and silence of the prairie. Imagining what the early Scandinavian settlers went through to survive both the solitude of the prairie coupled with the unforgiving winters. As you might surmise, I have recently returned from a brief respite to North Dakota, and boy, did I have a botanical experience! While the hunting (the reason for the trip) was less than satisfactory (according to local experts), botanizing was a thrill for me. The only problem: I neglected to pack my field guides! Ever since my return, I've been glued to my botanical keys identifying the numerous specimens from my excursion. While beef cattle, wheat and sunflowers are king in North Dakota, the state as well as the large Native American reservations out there have made an effort (thankfully) to preserve large tracts of the prairie for perpetuity. I always enjoy the opportunity to observe plants that we display in the Gifford Garden and the Fern Glen growing in their natural environment. Prairie plants have long been a favorite of mine, many making the select list of low maintenance perennials. Grasses and forbs that have evolved in this environment are tough customers, typically being quite drought tolerant. I can see why the early sod-busters were so attracted to this area of the country — the rich, almost black, deep, stone-free soil will grow just about anything.

Reflecting on the different plant communities that I observed while ambling many miles over the plains, the native grasses made the biggest impression on me. The French explorers Marquette and Joliet coined the name "prairie" in 1673. Prairie is French for meadow. The prairie regions of the United States are divided roughly into 3 geographic regions: the tall-grass prairie and forest border lying principally in eastern Minnesota, Iowa, Missouri, Illinois and Indiana (now the "Corn Belt"); the mixed-grass prairie covering North and South Dakota, Nebraska, Kansas western Oklahoma, and northern Texas; and the short-grass prairie (popularly referred to as the Great Plains) of eastern parts of Montana, Wyoming, Colorado, and New Mexico. I was in the heart of the mixed-grass prairie, with representatives of both prairie communities, the more arid short-grass community where there are virtually no trees due to the lack of rainfall, and the tall-grass community where the native grasses can grow as tall as a man. Big bluestem, Schizachyrium gerardii, and little bluestem, S. scoparium (which is a mainstay of our local upland grass communities), both considered tall-grasses, were prominent and already turning that wonderful russet color. With the slightest breeze (which there is no deficiency of out West!) both bluestems move in the most captivating way. The colorful switch grass, Panicum virgatum, is also an important component of the tall-grass prairie community. The striking red and scarlet colors of this grass make it a hot item at our yearly plant sales. Another tall-grass prairie species I enjoyed was Indian grass, Sorghastrum nutans. Short-grass representatives were also abundant, especially in the Badlands (one of the most impressive geological formations I've ever seen!). This easterner eagerly identified buffalo grass, Buchloe dactyloides, blue grama grass, Bouteloua gracilis, mesquite grass, B. curtipendula, and squirreltail grass, Hordeum jubatum. I also was able to ID some "intermediate" grasses: June grass, Koeleria cristata, needle grass, Stipa spartea, and western wheatgrass, Agropyron smithii.

Next week: More botanizing from North Dakota by this wanna-be cowboy.

Brad Roeller
Manager of the IES Display Gardens

Week of 8 October 2001

Yes, I did see the tumbling tumbleweed on my recent trip to North Dakota, and still find myself humming that old cowboy song (the only lyrics I recall are: "tumbling tumbleweed...") at the oddest times. Tumbleweed, Amaranthus albus, is related to the ornamental amaranthus annuals we periodically grow and display in the Gifford Garden. Their brilliant foliage and showy flowers makes them a favorite garden annual. Wherever barbed wire fences crossed the plains (I can only imagine the true "open" plains), the spent tumbleweeds would accumulate in layers often feet thick.

Observing one of my favorite shrub roses, the prairie rose, Rosa setigera, was like welcoming an old friend. This rose is a stalwart of our rose collection at IES. Prairie roses were abundant where farming or ranching was absent, relegated within coulees and along the edges of the Badlands. This rose is perhaps the toughest, most durable of all our native roses. It offers a rose-pink, late blooming flower, followed by a multitude of round, red, persistent hips in the fall. This species is a parent of many of our older ramblers and pillar roses.

Another native shrub that has been grown as part of our woody plant collections is buffaloberry, Shepherdia argentea. This is perhaps the most common shrub throughout much of the southwestern part of North Dakota, and the sharp-tailed grouse that we were perusing were literally stuffed with the ripe fruit. I expect ranchers used this native as a "living" fence, as nothing can broach it prolific spines. The silvery foliage and brilliant red, edible fruit (passable jellies and jams, so I'm told), added a colorful natural accent to the monotypic (or so it appears at first glance) grasslands. A couple of other woody old friends that I was fortunate enough to observe in their native habitat were the mossycup oak, Quercus macrocarpa (look for the beauties we have growing near the Gifford House parking lot), their unusual acorn cups with fringed margins; and two species of Junipers which I think (unfortunately I left the state sans specimens) were the Rocky Mountain juniper, Juniperus scopulorum, and the trailing juniper, J. horizontalis. A lesson to be gained from my oversight: bring your favorite field guides when out and about in botanically unfamiliar environments!

As mentioned last week, some of my favorite perennials are natives that have their roots (no pun intended) in the prairies. Some of the tickseeds, Bidens, fall into this category. Two tickseeds, B. polylepis and B. aristosa, were still in flower in North Dakota. They even made an impression on my horticulturally-ignorgant hunting companions! The goldenrods were likewise in their glory on the plains. Silver-rod, Solidago bicolor, the only white flowering goldenrod, was perhaps the most prominent of the several species I encountered on the prairie. Hard-leaved (sporting those great rigid, oval leaves), lance-leaf, zig-zag, and Canada goldenrods were all picked up by this wanderer. A simply lovely aster, the prairie aster, Aster turbinellus, was in full flower, and a sight to behold. I was fortunate enough to see a blazing star that we grow in the Gifford Garden, the prairie blazing star, Liatris pycnostachya. The odoriferous wormwoods would assault my olfactory senses when I brushed against them. Western white sage, Artemisia ludoviciana var. gnaphalodes is a true indicator that one has arrived in the "Old West".

Brad Roeller
Manager of the IES Display Gardens

Week of 15 October 2001

I've gotta admit it: I do derive some satisfaction from the first killing frost of the season. Yes, no more watering, weeding, or pampering those annuals and tender perennials. It also signals a seasonal change in my demeanor as well as my outlook on life itself. I experience similar occurrences with the first snowfall of the season and then, in late winter, the arrival of redwing blackbirds in the IES lowlands. Now a time to relax and enjoy; marvel at the progression of color in our deciduous trees; renew your spirit by gardening on those refreshing and clear frosty mornings; feel the calming effect that emanates from the subtle movement of the russet-colored little bluestem stirred by fall zephyrs. Yes, fall runs a close second to spring in my book.

What to do in the garden this time of year? In a word, enjoy. Those fall blooming asters and Boltonias are still in their glory as are monkshood and toad lilies. For you diehard gardeners, there are a few tasks best accomplished at this time of year, which will bear fruit next growing season. So, in no particular order, if you need to burn off some surplus energy, I suggest the following:

• This is an ideal time to transplant trees and shrubs (a little too late for most herbaceous perennials). If you have always wanted to relocate some of your landscape plants to a more desirable location, sharpen that spade and have at it. There are a few types of woodies that are best not planted or transplanted in the fall. It's likewise not too late to purchase and plant nursery stock in your landscape. Great bargains can be had at most local nurseries this time of year. All sorts of useful information on planting techniques and considerations can be on the IES website. This "Homeowner's Guide to Organic Landscape Care" is chock full of all sorts of great info.
• If the soil acidity (pH) needs changing, now is the time to start this slow process. Optimum soil pHs for individual plants are easily obtained from a variety of horticultural references (perhaps Michael Dirr's Manual of Woody Landscape Plants is the most complete). Elemental sulfur (to lower the soil pH, or make it more acid) and limestone (to raise the pH, choose dolomitic limestone as it contains the essential nutrients magnesium and calcium) take months to break down and affect the soil acidity. Get it down now, frosts will weather these soil amendments and winter snows will help deliver them down into the root zone. With the optimum pH, the availability of essential mineral nutrients will be realized, meaning plant growth and performance will be maximized (i.e. your plants will love you).
• Soon (it's still a little too early), you should start "preparing" your woody landscape plants for the dormant season. This means making sure that the root zone has received adequate moisture (either naturally or artificially). I also add a 3"-4" additional layer of well-aged mulch to the root zone (this extra layer will be removed with the onset of growth in the spring). I'm a big advocate of "planting rings" around the bases of trees and shrubs, especially when they are sited in lawns. By adding that extra layer of mulch, you will delay the freezing of the soil surrounding the root system, thus extending the time roots will continue to grow. I also like to fertilize woody plants when I add this winter mulch "blanket". I only use a quality organic fertilizer with a low nitrogen and higher phosphorus percentage, such as 4-6-4. Organic fertilizers are naturally slow release, nutrients will be metered out from the time you add them, right up until the ground freezes hard for the winter, often not until mid-December. Much of the fertilizer will still be available the following spring. A strong and actively growing fall root system will "kick-start" your plants next spring!
• Mid- to late-October is the time to initiate deer protection measures. Don't procrastinate! Find "Strategies For Protecting Your Landscape From Deer Browsing" at www.ecostudies.org/perennial2.htm (scroll down to the sections beginning with 6 November 2000), or pick up the free brochure at the Gifford Garden.

Next week: What to do in the perennial garden this time of year.

Brad Roeller
Manager of the IES Display Gardens

Week of 22 October 2001

The Hudson Valley is truly magnificent this time of year. The hillsides and dales are literally ablaze in color. We are indeed fortunate to witness this annual seasonal phenomenon. I digress; let me get to the subject at hand. OK you diehard perennial gardeners; there are some important tasks that should be done at this time of year. So, lets get a little more dirt under those too clean fingernails:

• If you haven't do so already, get out your spading forks and carefully lift your cannas, dahlias, glads and caladiums. For a thorough explanation on how to overwinter these great, but tender, garden favorites go to the archives of this tome (at the bottom of this page is an archive option, or you can go directly to the archives by entering: www.ecostudies.org/perennial.htm) and check out the 10-18-99 edition.
• It is the absolute, make-no-mistake-about-it, end of the bulb planting season. Don't procrastinate any longer-plant those beauties now. To "hedge your bet", spread a 2"-3" layer of mulch over where you have planted the bulbs. Don't be discouraged when your new additions don't come up with the rest of your bulbs-newly planted spring-flowering bulbs always come up a week or two later than established ones.
• As mentioned last week when discussing preparing your woody landscape plants for the dormant season, it is an opportune time to check and adjust, if necessary, the soil acidity. After the last of your perennials has been cut back, and leaves blown from your garden beds, get out that pH meter and have at it. Let the long Hudson Valley winter break down those soil amendments so the soil pH will be at an optimum range (to facilitate nutrient uptake) come next spring.
• What perennials to cut back, and when? Don't sweat the small stuff — let Mother Nature tell you. First to be frosted, first to cut back. Most of the "fleshy", water-retentive perennials are the ones that show the effects of "killing" frosts, and these are the ones that deserve first attention. Hostas, daylilies and peonies fall into this category. If you wait too long, disposable latex gloves will come in mighty handy. Many perennials show surprising resistance to frosts and remain largely intact, if not stately, in the dormant garden. Ornamental grasses, black-eyed Susan's, coneflowers and sunflowers, globe thistles and the like may be left untouched for their winter interest. Additionally, many of these perennials provide a great seed source for our winged winter residents. The only drawback is that by not cutting back groups of perennials, especially Ornamental grasses and Siberian iris, you are leaving a prime winter domicile for those blasted meadow voles. Every spring I receive several calls starting with: "there's big holes in my ornamental grasses and Siberian iris...what's eating them?" Blasted meadow voles are my sight-unseen answer. In the Gifford Garden, literally surrounded by "wild" areas, we are diligent and thorough in our fall cleanup because of the high natural vole population. While the stark garden landscape is rather uninteresting, we must give the vole's natural predators (hawks, owls, and coyotes) a fighting chance of sighting (and dining on) these damned varmints. I do not advocate the commercial baits (i.e., poisons), as non-target small mammals will inadvertently take the bait. In more residential areas, meadow voles may not be a problem and desirable winter perennials may be left until the following spring.

Next week: More on garden cleanup and preparing your plants for winter.

Brad Roeller
Manager of the IES Display Gardens

Week of 29 October 2001

Before I continue with the intended topic (preparing your yard and garden for winter), I want to answer, via this medium, an inquiry repeatedly asked of me over the last several weeks, namely "What's digging up my lawn?" The answer: mostly likely skunks. Opossums, raccoons, and moles may also be culpable. "Why my lawn?" The answer: grubs, probably white grubs of Japanese Beetles. "What can I do?" The answer: get rid of the grubs and repair your lawn in the spring. In my opinion, the best time to control grubs is late summer, with a method that doesn't rely on chemical pesticides. Until then, there are some neat ways of killing and/or discouraging the aforementioned varmints from continuing the degradation of your lawn with their nocturnal feeding forays.

Japanese beetle larvae (grubs) are easy to control using conventional insecticides or biological controls. At IES we have evaluated both methods. Without getting on the proverbial soapbox, we recommend not relying on traditional insecticides for grub control. The shelves are literally full of persistent, toxic chemical insecticides that will do the job, but these products indiscriminately kill a wide range of beneficial insects and microorganisms in the soil. The health risk associated with using these chemicals is something not to be taken lightly. The attitude "if it's on the shelf, it has to be safe...", is misleading. Take the product Dursban. For years it was one of the most highly recommended insecticides for grub control. Safe? - of course. Well, it has now been labeled a possible carcinogen and will soon be off the shelves. Someday, I'll have to dedicate a "From the Gifford Garden" to chemicals that have received EPA approval for use, only to be removed from the trade. The list is quite impressive (shameful!!). So, avoid the Dursbans, Turcams, Oftanols, Dyloxes, Sevins, and their ilk if for no other reason than your family's (and pet's - that's another article!) health and safety. Consider biological warfare. No, not anthrax! - instead utilize insects or microorganisms that have an affinity to dining on grubs. Predatory nematodes are quite specific in their diet; they love to dine on the insides of both Japanese beetles and masked chafer grubs (these guys are hard to kill!). These nematodes, unlike their destructive cousins (such as root-knot and lesion nemas), are beneficial and can be used on not only grubs, but also flea beetles in your vegetable garden, many destructive caterpillars (gypsy moth, tent caterpillars, fall webworms), weevils and borers. How they work would make the most hardened terrorist cringe. The nematodes that you spray on your lawn (with an ordinary garden sprayer), quickly work their way down into the thatch and topsoil layer, seeking out larval grubs. They penetrate the grub between its segmented body and "lay" eggs inside the body of the grub. Tiny worm-like juvenile nematodes emerge inside the infested grub. These nematodes release a bacterium that kills their victim. The nematodes feed on and reproduce within the grub's body (quite a cozy environment) then send their young in search of more prey.

Certain bacteria have long been used as a biological control for certain insect and disease pests. Bacillus popillae, commonly referred to as Bp or Milky Spore Disease, has been widely used to control a broad range of larval caterpillars (tent caterpillars, gypsy moth larvae, fall webworm and numerous garden pests) as well as destructive grubs. However, after periodic trials at IES, it appears that we don't have the right environmental conditions (probably our local soil temperature is too low) to support a viable soil population.

In late August or early September, the prudent gardener should conduct an annual survey to ascertain the level of grubs in their turf. I simply take a sharp turf edger and select several parts of my lawn for sampling. If certain parts of your lawn have been prone to grub damage in the past, you should definitely sample in those areas, as I have noticed that the adult beetles have an affinity to certain areas of turf when seeking out prime egg laying habitat. Cut a 12"x12" section of sod, lift it and count those nasty grubs. If you have an average of 8-10 grubs per square foot, intervention is called for. Oh I almost forgot, put the sod back in place and press it back into the soil with firm foot pressure.

Next week: More on rodent control, one not-so-bad grub control chemical pesticide, and back to preparing your yard and garden for winter.

Brad Roeller
Manager of the IES Display Gardens

Week of 5 November 2001

One last word on grub control: Last week I recommended a biological control strategy for controlling grubs in your lawn, namely predatory nematodes. I went on to advise avoiding potent chemical fixes for grub control - the "spread-it-and-forget-it" mentality. Well, being a miserly penny-pincher by nature, I must note here that this blanket recommendation warrants clarification. Unless you are independently wealthy, the introduction of nematodes into your turf is cost effective only on relatively small lawns. For example, Gardens Alive!, a great little mail-order organic products catalogue, sells Grub-Away nematodes for grub control. They recommend 10 million nematodes per 600 sq. ft. of turf. 10 million of the little guys will set you back $26.45. Lets see, 43,560 sq. ft. per acre, and I've got about an acre and a half... As you can see, this is not an inexpensive proposition. The turf damage from skunk and other digging varmints in search of fat grubs is largely over for the season as the cold soil temperatures have forced the grubs deeper down into the soil profile. However, next spring, as soil temperatures rise, those soon-to-metamorphize grubs will begin their seasonal migration to the surface where they will start dining on your grass roots, albeit not to the degree of the previous late summer and fall.

For daunting grub problems that encompass significant square footage, you might want to investigate a chemical grub control product, Merit, manufactured by the Bayer Corporation. This relatively new insecticide controls a broad range of insect pests, including Japanese beetle grubs. The active ingredient, imidacloprid, warrants a "caution" safety and risk classification. Pesticides bearing the term "caution" as the strongest precautionary indication are relatively low in toxicity and hazard. The "pros" of using Merit for grub control: the low toxicity of the product, the very long persistence in the environment, the small amount needed for control (i.e. less chemicals in the environment). The "cons": the persistence of the active ingredient (yes, it takes literally several months, depending on environmental conditions, to degrade), the broad spectrum of control (translation: it kills indiscriminately), and its mobility through the soil profile (it is water soluble and can contaminate ground water). This presents something of a dilemma to environmentally-minded lawn aficionados as many of the attributes of this chemical also can be considered drawbacks. The long and short of it: I only recommend Merit for a "quick fix", hopefully a one-time application to solve a large (area, that is) grub infestation. If grub populations (gleaned from late summer grub counts) are low, or damage is confined to small patches of turf (a few hundred square feet), why not try nematodes? One last word on Merit: this product, because of all its qualities(?), is definitely being over prescribed for all sorts of insect problems in the landscape. Professional pesticide applicators are routinely using Merit to solve virtually every insect-related problem, from grubs to adelgids, scale insects, borers, (the list goes on and on). One application of Merit in late spring and goodbye grubs. Soil injections in the root zones of your favorite landscape trees and shrubs and forget about any insect problems for the whole year! Even though this product is new (I can't recall it being available more than 8 years ago), already I'm hearing of certain insects developing resistance to imidacloprid (remember the "Hellstrom Chronicles"?), no doubt due to its overuse.

Well, I've digressed yet again. I'll get back on subject next week. One task, mentioned earlier in connection with preparing your trees and shrubs for the dormant season, is all-important this year. October 2001 was the 5^th driest on record. It is essential that your young landscape woodies go into the dormant season with adequate soil moisture. The new beauties that I have placed in my home landscape this year (and last) are being treated to a slow soaking drench, compliments of a soaker hose, to saturate the entire root zone of the plants. My "winter" mulch - a uniform 4-inch layer of aged wood chips or bark mulch - follows this. This mulch layer, more generous than a "summer" mulch, will retain the important moisture (yes woody plants do transpire, or lose moisture, during the dormant season) and also moderate the soil temperature encouraging active root growth right up until when the ground freezes.

Brad Roeller
Manager of the IES Display Gardens

Week of 12 November 2001

Well, I broke out the long johns this week-a seasonal milestone for me. Time to crank up the wood stove, check the antifreeze in the car, and it's high time to "put the garden to bed" for the year. Why is this important you ask? Why not leave things as they are in my flower garden? A few reasons spring to mind: By cutting back and composting (if disease free) the frosted foliage of perennials and annuals you will limit diseases next growing season. Additionally, gardens that have not been cut back often harbor those incorrigible meadow voles. These demons can destroy specimen maiden grasses, Siberian iris, and other preferred perennials and love to chew on the inner bark of many young and succulent trees and shrubs (fruit trees and lilacs to name a few). Let those hawks, owls, and coyotes seek and destroy these vermin. So rake out those leaves, pull out those frozen annuals, cut back perennials and leave your flower garden a "clean slate". Now, that's not to say leaving selected perennials standing for winter interest or as a seed source for our winter feathered friends is not advisable. I love to leave a regal Miscanthus standing defiantly in winter. Chickadees and nuthatches love the seeds of globe thistle and coneflowers. Once you've enjoyed the fruit of blackberry lily prominent against an undisturbed carpet of snow, you'll never cut them back in the fall again.

After your garden has endured a proper fall cleaning, take the time to check the soil acidity (pH) and amend it if necessary. While certain plants prosper from a specific pH (such as acid-loving rhododendrons and hollies), most garden plants should be grown at a pH of about 6.5. Simply put, if soil pH is too low or too high, nutrients needed by plants to make food will not dissolve quickly and may turn into insoluble forms that plants cannot use. It takes several months for either sulfur (lowers the pH, makes it more acid) or limestone (raises the pH) to break down and affect the soil acidity. Winter snow melts and alternate freezing and thawing (weathering) will do this job quite nicely and help achieve the optimum soil acidity for plant growth in spring.

Believe it or not, I'm pulling up some of those cool-season weeds from the garden this week as part of fall cleanup. The principle culprits are chickweed (Stellaria media) and henbit (Lamium amplexicaule). Get them now while their roots are shallow and save some work come spring.

After the above tasks are completed you have to wait for the onset of winter. The last flower garden job of the season is to apply a "winter" mulch over the garden. I actually advocate applying 2 different winter mulches over the entire garden. Once nighttime frosts are a regular occurrence and we start to get "permanent" frozen soil (typically around Thanksgiving), I spread a uniform 1-11/2" layer of screened organic compost over the entire flower garden (the weed and disease-free compost available at McEnroe Organic Farm Assoc. in Millerton is excellent for this purpose) avoiding the crowns of individual perennials. I cut back perennials to about a 2" height which acts as "markers" of plant crowns. Two reasons for this: so plants won't get trampled with garden cleanup (first look and spot plants before you enter! is my frequent reminder to new gardeners in the Gifford Garden), and so I won't inadvertently cover plant crowns with moisture trapping mulch which could lead to crown rot. Perennials which form colonies due to rhizomonous root systems are lightly covered, or not covered at all, with this organic compost layer-1/2" or so. This mulch will get incorporated into the soil with the first spring cultivation. The second winter mulching entails blanketing your entire flower garden with evergreen boughs. Plants enjoy a slow "cool-down" and an equally slow spring "warm-up". This evergreen covering will moderate soil temperatures, and stop that deleterious alternate freezing and thawing of early and late winter that can raise havoc with many shallowly rooted or newly planted perennials. Spruce and fir (if no deer problems) boughs work best.

Next week: More of the same.

Brad Roeller
Manager of the IES Display Gardens

Week of 19 November 2001

Even if the calendar says fall, it's feeling more like winter! So don't put it off any longer, finish those often overlooked garden tasks and "button-up" your plants for the winter. Take Note: This year the most critical seasonal job to do is guaranteeing that your garden plants, both woody and herbaceous, have an adequate supply of moisture before the ground freezes. I'll predict that many of the calls I get next spring will begin: "The new perennials that I bought last year never came up this year ... whyyy?" Or: "My young redbud, which looked so good all year, suddenly died ... whyyy??" Dollars to donuts, it was because of the exceeding dry fall, and these folks didn't supplement the meager soil moisture with irrigation. I'm spending much of my spare time deep watering newly planted perennials and woodies in my home landscape. Fledgling root systems need to continue to grow and develop for successful plant establishment. As mentioned a few weeks ago, roots in a moist environment, with a "winter" mulch moderating the soil temperature, will continue to grow right up until the ground freezes hard. So, before you roll up the garden hose for the season, put it to good use!

As of the writing of this week's edition of "From the Gifford Garden", I've completed the chore of protecting vulnerable (from being browsed up by deer) trees and shrubs. We've been given a temporary reprieve from browsing this fall due to an abundant mast crop; but mark my words, once that prime food source is depleted, the animals will set their sights on your prized landscape plants. As faithful readers of this offering know, I rely more on physical barriers to protect specimen trees and shrubs than I do on repellants. A look at the IES Deer Browse Garden this time looks like a burlap village (my wife refers to them as "hobbit huts"). But, knock on wood; I've never had a breach of security with any of my physical barriers (netting, burlap, snow fence, and electric fencing) in the last 9 years. For tips on protecting your woody plants from deer, go back in the archives to the 11-13-00, 11-20-00, and 11-27-00 editions of this writing. For my select "deer-proof" plants list see the 12-04-00 and 12-11-00 editions. One last note on deer: take the time to thank a hunter for reducing the population these despicable nuisances!

If we're fortunate enough to get a calm, mild (temperature in the high 40s or 50s) day, perform one last gardening task: protecting certain trees and shrubs from an environmental stress associated with winter. Winter injury occurs when the ground is frozen and moisture in unavailable to plants. Plants continue to transpire in the dormant season, especially on windy and sunny days. Simply put, when a plant looses more moisture than it can absorb, desiccation occurs. Desiccation is progressive, starting with the leaves drying up and proceeding to twigs and finally the root system. If severe, this environmental disorder can be fatal. Broad-leaved evergreens and conifers are most susceptible, as they hold their leaves through the dormant season. So, as "boldly" noted above, deep water those plants and apply the "winter" mulch!

Three more winter-related environmental stresses might occur with certain trees and shrubs: sunscald (believe it or not!), tipburn, and winter dieback.

Next week: What are these mysterious maladies, and how do you deal with them?

Brad Roeller
Manager of the IES Display Gardens

Week of 26 November 2001

OK, you say: I've raked all those (expletive deleted) leaves from my lawn and flower beds; cut back my perennials to a uniform 2" height (leaving those "markers" as Brad calls them to keep me from trampling plants and mulching crowns); checked the pH of both lawn and garden (all right! pH 6.5 on the nose!); deep watered all my not-yet-established plants, both perennials and woodies; applied a "blanket" of screened compost over the perennials (man, it looks as though Mr. Clean has had his way in my garden!); faithfully placed the "winter" mulch over my young trees and shrubs, encompassing as much of the root system as possible, hopefully out to the drip-edge of the plant; and I'm still waiting for "permafrost" before I overlay my perennials with the 2^nd winter mulch, the evergreen boughs (looks like it will be around the beginning of December). So, am I finished?

Well ... yes and no. As I mentioned last week, certain woody plants as well as a few perennials are susceptible to a couple of winter-related problems. Broad-leaved evergreens, such as those popular Catawba rhododendrons; many evergreen and semi-evergreen azaleas; roses (overwintering the "queen-of-the-garden" next week); some hollies, boxwood, and camellias (yes, you can grow camellias in our neck of the woods!); many conifers (especially those popular dwarf conifers); daphne, heathers and heaths; perennials such as tree peonies; lavender; and germander, may be subject to winter injury (discussed last week), sunscald (yes, sunscald!), tipburn, and winter dieback.

Winter injury, the results of desiccation, is best prevented by deep watering and mulching just before the ground freezes. Another recommended procedure that limits damage from desiccation is to spray vulnerable plants with an antitranspirant (VaporGard, Wilt-Pruf and the like), making the first application now. These products will reduce moisture loss by up to 80% while allowing the essential gaseous exchange between the air and the plant to continue unimpeded. A second spray application should be performed in late January or early February. Make sure the air temperature is above 40 degrees F. for several hours when planning this late winter application (i.e. the product must be dry before the temperature dips below freezing). I like the antitranspirants that are derived from bee's wax. A last tip for reducing damaging effects of winter injury is to protect plants that are subjected to drying winds or bright sunlight with wind screens or boxing them in with burlap. I prefer boxing with burlap as I can get two bangs for my buck with this method: reducing desiccation and protecting my beauties from those damned deer. Remember, when boxing in plants, leave adequate room between the burlap and the plant (at least a couple of inches) to insure air circulation (gaseous exchange) and limit tissue (leaf or needle) damage when leaves freeze on burlap.

Sunscald is a late winter-early spring problem that can affect young, thin-barked trees. This environmental disorder happens when daytime temperatures rise up to those wonderful high marks (ah yes, spring is coming!), only to have the nighttime temperature plummet below freezing. The dark, sunlight absorbing bark warms more on the south side of the tree than the north causing inner bark cells to rupture and the bark to split. I've witnessed this problem numerous times, and noticed that it is especially prevalent when young trees are sited near reflective (and heat absorbing) walls or buildings, or place alone without the benefit of shading from existing vegetation. What to do? I like to wrap the trunks (up to the first branch) of vulnerable trees with asphalt impregnated tree wrap as part of my wintertime plant prep. This wrap is removed come spring, as I don't want to leave a convenient place for insects to hide or moisture to accumulate. I will do this for a couple of seasons-typically until the trunk has some girth to it. When out shopping in your local nursery did you ever notice that some trees (especially maples and fruit trees) have a dab of paint at the base of the stem? Good tree growers mark the south side of the stems to help buyers align the young tree in the landscape.

Next week: Finishing winterizing your trees and shrubs and putting those roses to bed for the winter.

Brad Roeller
Manager of the IES Display Gardens

Week of 3 December 2001

Lets finish the chore of putting our gardens and landscape plants "to bed" for the season with some tips for winterizing the "queens of the garden" (roses, that is).

But before I offer our technique for over-wintering roses, I promised to discuss the last two winter-related problems that may affect woody plants subjected to drying winter winds and/or prolonged exposure to sunlight. Last week I covered winter injury and sunscald; this week it's tipburn (also known as windburn) and winter dieback. Actually, both of these environmental stresses are the same: tipburn is associated with evergreens and winter dieback with deciduous trees and shrubs. The drying effects of sun and wind are the culprits. The damage is typically not apparent until spring. Evergreens' leaves or needles will begin browning as springtime temperatures warm. The damage is usually located on the western or southwestern sides of the plant. In severe cases whole branches may die. With deciduous plants, the cambium (the soft formative tissue that gives rise to new tissue) will desiccate and cease to function. In early spring I perform a thumbnail scratch test on deciduous plants to determine if the inner bark (the cambium) is still green and viable. What to do? In both cases it is imperative to provide susceptible or young, not yet established trees and shrubs with moisture before the ground freezes (last chance, you procrastinators!) followed with the aforementioned blanket of winter mulch. Boxing susceptible broad and narrow-leaved evergreens with burlap or providing a windscreen will also go a long way in reducing the damage from these stresses. For young or susceptible deciduous plants, spraying with an antitranspirant as per last week's instructions will reduce moisture loss and limit winter dieback.

Two cultural tips to prevent damage on trees and shrubs related to wet, heavy snows: 1) Remove heavy snow from evergreen branches by gently brushing off the snow in an upward direction; and 2) To facilitate shedding snow, shear your hedges so the tops are rounded or narrowing towards the top (note: try to limit your hedge width to less than 3 feet).

Ok, we've finally had enough subfreezing nights to guarantee that our roses are dormant. It's time to "winterize" them. There might be something to this global warming after all as the environmental conditions necessary to perform this task (numerous freezing nights and the beginning of "permanent" frozen ground) keeps getting later and later in the season. Here's how we put our hybrid teas, grandifloras, and floribundas to bed for the winter (note: these measures are not necessary for hardy shrub roses. However, it is important to remove old rose foliage and deep water and mulch shrub roses):

• Cleanup those rose leaves! Old leaves may harbor disease spores and insect eggs, so get them outta there (and don't compost them!). So, step 1, no leaves in the garden; any hangers-on, hand pick them.
• Deep water! (Heard that one before?)
• Prune rose canes to a uniform 16"-18" height. (Sharpen those Felcos!)
• Spray canes with an antitranspirant.
• Mound the graft union with at least a 10" mound of a loose soil (don't use soil from around your roses as it will reduce the soil over the roots), or compost. Our IES mix is 2 parts McEnroe Organic Farm's sterile compost and 1 part coarse sand (the type used for icy sidewalks-traction). Do this a couple of days after you spray your roses with an antitranspirant.
• Carefully wrap the canes with burlap or agricultural fleece. This will minimize damage from winter winds whipping canes together, and reduce moisture loss (desiccation) from the canes. The wrap will not impede gaseous exchange.
• Mulch the entire rose bed with a 8"+ layer of mulch (we like undyed spruce bark mulch).
• One final step for us northlanders: after all the aforementioned steps, enclose individual rose bushes with one of the commercial styrofoam rose caps. If you opt for this measure, the preceding task (wrapping the canes with burlap or fleece) is not necessary. You can also fashion homemade caps from chicken wire or tarpaper. With this system, simply cover the entire rosebush with compost right up to the tips of the canes.

For large-flowered, repeat-blooming climbing roses the process is somewhat different. You should start by deep watering the bush (ok, I got the point!). Detach the climber from its support and carefully tie the canes together with a couple strips of burlap (ouch!). Carefully bend the canes to the ground and secure them by "pegging"-driving 2 stakes into the ground across from each other so that they cross at an angle that will hold the canes in place. Cover the tied-together canes completely with 4"-6" of organic mulch.

Don't be too anxious to remove this winter protection come spring. When spring does arrive and you notice trees and shrubs buds start to leaf out, gradually and carefully start removing the mulch. I always like to keep some straw or remay (floating row cover) handy for those late April-early May frosts to protect the tender new growth. More on this come spring.

Brad Roeller
Manager of the IES Display Gardens

Week of 10 December 2001

Long johns on, long johns off (repeat). What is going on with the weather? As I write this edition of "From the Gifford Garden" (Wednesday, the 5^th), I'm watching the thermometer outside my office tickle the mid 60s. While warm weather enthusiasts are lovin' it, I have mixed feelings. Make no mistake, I'm no fan of sub-zero weather, however, a consistent and sufficiently long dormant season is an important part of the yearly growth process of plants adapted to our climate. A stroll through the Gifford Garden this week raised my eyebrows. Several spring-blooming perennials are in flower! Driving around the county, I'm observing crabapples and cherries in flower in Poughkeepsie. Pussywillows, throughout the region, are in their full glory. Forsythia, that harbinger of spring, has likewise been fooled by the weather. My good friend, Mike Ruggiero, a Senior Curator at The New York Botanical Garden, who runs the impressive Peggy Rockefeller Rose Garden there, says the rose bloom is still quite impressive. He's in somewhat of a quandary as the city still awaits that all-important "killing" frost required to put his roses "to bed" for the winter. Talking with Mike, it's hard to remember a year when the dormant season (i.e. frozen ground, consistent below-freezing nighttime temperatures) has not come by the 2^nd or 3^rd week in December. We both hope that within the next few weeks Mother Nature (or the jet stream) will correct the current conditions.

In addition to throwing many plant's physiological clocks out of whack, these warm early winter temperatures have ramifications for next spring's bloom. Obviously the plants that are in bloom now, or with partially opened blossoms, will not bloom come spring. Many flower buds, which should be closed tighter than my wife's wallet this time of year, have swelled in anticipation of continued warm temperatures. While not opened, several rhododendrons and azaleas (and I bet a little investigation would swell this short list) are "showing color", meaning the flower bud scales are just beginning to open to the point where the color of the blossom is discernable. The first couple of cold nights where temperatures will dip into single digits will "blast" those not-quite-open buds. While ornamental interest will be diminished on many landscape plants, I'm more concerned with the local orchard industry and wonder how this weather is affecting their livelihood.

Well, there's not much we can do about the weather (other than complain!). Lets hope that the next couple of weeks bring a slow cool down (remember plants like a slow fall cool down and an equally slow warm up in spring) to normal temperatures. And as long as I am on my Christmas wish list, Santa, please let it gently, but steadily, rain for about a week before the ground freezes. That, along with a nice blanket of snow (poor man's mulch) for much of the winter would be the best presents for all us gardeners. Oh, one more as long as I'm asking. Send a snowstorm to my friends in Buffalo. They have not had a snowfall as of this writing (first time in their history), and they're exhibiting unusual withdrawal symptoms.

Next week: New Year's resolutions for progressive gardeners.

Brad Roeller
Manager of the IES Display Gardens

Weeks of 17 and 24 December 2001

I must say, I'm a great one for keeping New Year's resolutions, much to my wife's chagrin. You see, the secret to keeping a resolutions is to resolve to do things, or make changes, that will reward or please one, not punish by imposing rigorous or dutiful constraints on one's daily routine. A few examples of previous resolutions will clarify: enjoy a cigar on a more frequent basis; eat more chocolate; spend more time with my dog; don't shave on weekends; watch more sports on TV. Unlike others, I eagerly anticipate January 1. A word of caution is in order: limit yourself to just 1 "feel good" resolution per annum!

Several years ago I made one "serious" resolution that continues to guide both my personal and professional life: limit the use of chemicals in the landscape. For the next couple editions of "From the Gifford Garden", I'll put up the argument for, and benefits of, limiting chemical usage in turf and landscape management. I'll also offer some alternatives to conventional garden and landscape care along with some great resources for fledgling organic gardeners.

OK, lets me put up some "off the top of my head" arguments for limiting chemical usage in the garden and landscape:

• Environmental Health. I'm sure that there's a reservation in heaven for Rachel Carson, author of Silent Spring. I can't remember a book that's had such an impression on me. Luckily, it was required reading for this impressionable mind back in my college days. Little did anyone realize the threat posed by commonly used pesticides such as DDT. This book was the first to talk about the ramifications of years of pesticide use and the serious environmental problems associated with inorganic chemicals such as persistence in the environment, mobility, concentration, and food chains. Mrs. Carson had the audacity to question the conventional wisdom of the agricultural and horticultural industries. After all, if you can't trust the "experts" in the chemical industry and federal oversight organizations, whom can you trust? Well, Silent Spring has been around about a half century and, unfortunately, the "chemical mentality" still permeates the agricultural and horticultural industry. Further, all-powerful and massive "green" industry continues to impart inordinate and constant pressure on politicians for approval of literally hundreds of "new and better" products and practices each year. Unfortunately, long-term environmental ramifications of these chemicals and practices are little understood and often receive the "fast-track" through the approval process. Someday I'll devote a whole edition (or two!) of "From the Gifford Garden" entitled something like: "Chemicals I Have Know And Used That Are Now Banned". In my relatively short professional career (28 years and counting at IES), the list is impressive and growing. OK, time to get off the soapbox. The bottom line: today, if an insect, disease or plant performance problem arises, I will use more "environmentally friendly" products and practices to solve problem. This does not rule out a conventional chemical product, but I will use it only as a last resort. Much more on this in the next few weeks when I discuss alternatives to inorganic chemicals and fertilizers.

Next week: More arguments for limiting chemical in the landscape, or "What is a plant junkie?"

Brad Roeller
Manager of the IES Display Gardens

Week of 31 December 2001

OK, aside from purported environmental problems, what's so bad with using chemical pesticides anyway? If the government says they're safe, they've gotta be. Well, tell that to my forestry professor who worked in the 1950s on a NYS Highway Department crew charged with spraying herbicides (typically 2,4-D), for weed control along state highways, and insecticides, usually DDT, for mosquito control in low-lying areas along state highway rights-of-ways. Many of the chlorinated hydrocarbons in these "safe" (in those days) products were concentrated and resided within fatty tissues in his body. If he lost weight these chemicals would be released into his system. And yes, these chemical compounds are carcinogenic. He died a few years ago, losing the bizarre fight to keep his body weight up. As mentioned last week, every year the EPA pulls another "safe" pesticide from the shelves after some threshold of health-related problems associated with their use has been met. I personally don't like playing Russian roulette with my health! I've watched neighbors who take great pains to safely make applications of lawn "weeds-and-feeds", following label directions and washing up after they're finished, only to be ignorant of chemical residue being tracked throughout their homes compliments of the soles of their footwear or Fido, the family dog. I recall reading a paper devoted to outdoor chemical proliferation within the household; believe me it was scary. If your, or your family's (or pet's!) health is important, try to go organic whenever possible.

Argument # 3 for limiting chemicals in the landscape: Breaking the "chemical dependency" syndrome in lawn and garden care. Yes, I've had to perform "tough-love" intervention on numerous occasions in my career. I once "cured" an estate lawn that was so dependent on fungicides and pesticides that the owner was spending over $8,000 per year to keep it in the pristine condition he was accustomed to (this figure did not include lawn fertilizers). After having been fined several thousand dollars for violating water restrictions during a previous summer's drought, he realized there had to be a better way. The root system of this irrigated sod was relegated to the top few inches of the surface despite its old age. This was due primarily to the fertilization program "sold" to him by a landscape contractor, which kept the feeding roots near the surface where they would receive their monthly nitrogen "fix". The poor guy couldn't meet the water needs of his shallow-rooted lawn. Further, as most fungicides need to be watered in thoroughly, he was missing scheduled applications, and consequently losing large sections of turf to pythium. Well, in this case we didn't go "cold turkey", it took a few years and some education on my part, but I'm pleased to say that today he's happily "green" and proud of it.

While I'm concentrating on chemical pesticides as the root of this plant "junkie" syndrome, frequent and heavy use of inorganic, high nitrogen, water-soluble fertilizers for both lawn and garden use greatly contribute to an unhealthy plant dependency. On numerous occasions I've been asked to visit someone's garden or landscape to ascertain what's wrong with their plants. I've developed a checklist to run through to assist me in narrowing down the root (no pun intended) of the problem. High on that list are several questions related to fertilization. I can't tell you how many times improper fertilization was the culprit. As any tried-and-true organic gardener will tell you, if you have properly sited, reliable plants grown and maintained organically, there is no need for a fertilization program. Yes, you heard me right: strong, organically maintained plants do not need to be fertilized. Further, gardens where fertilizers and chemicals are not standard fare will withstand environmental stresses exponentially better than their highly fertilized, chemically dependent counterparts. This was nicely demonstrated in our IES rose garden, the Leonard I. Shankman Rose Garden.

Maybe this proclivity for gardening with a reliance on chemicals and fertilizers is a cultural thing with us. After all, we maintain our bodies with a reliance on drugs and medications instead of proper nutrition and exercise. The bottom line is that these dependent plants (and people) lose their inherent resistance to ward off insect, disease, or environmental problems such as drought and temperature extremes. The answer will be forthcoming — tune in next week.

Have a happy and pesticide-free holiday!

Next week: Why John Q. Public's gardening habits scare the heck out of me. And, as promised, the alternatives to chemical gardening.

Brad Roeller
Manager of the IES Display Gardens

Week of 7 January 2002

Happy New Year! My gosh, it's 2002! This week I will continue to plead the case for limiting the use of chemicals in the garden and landscape with the hope that some "on the fence" pesticide users may be influenced and make this their personal resolution. I've already pointed out three sound reasons for limiting chemical use in the landscape: environmental health, personal health and safety, and the chemical dependency that your turf and ornamentals may develop by subjecting them to frequent and prolonged pesticide and fertilizer applications. I'm confident that there are numerous other arguments to be made for "going organic", but I'll limit myself to just one more: look who's making those applications.

I've been a NYS certified pesticides applicator coming up on 16 years. I've spent hundreds of hours attending training classes, passed core and category exams, and always followed the letter of the law when applying pesticides. I take it seriously and continue to be a student of insect and disease control. As you are aware, gardening and landscape care at IES utilizes an integrated pest management approach where, if called for, a chemical pesticide application could occur, but would be used only as a last resort and guided by a biorational or at a minimum, a least toxic chemical approach to disease and pest management. Biorational controls are a catchall term for a diverse range of both cultural and mechanical landscape practices. It would include everything from thinning bee balm and phlox to increase air movement through the plants (thus limiting the proliferation of fungal spores) to using biological controls such as certain bacteria or predatory insects to reduce or eradicate insect pests. My annual pesticides records are comparatively sparse when reviewing records from years ago. Unfortunately, John Q. Homeowner does not have to undergo the same training and certification that we do. And, guess who's primarily responsible for putting down the absurdly huge amounts of pesticides (and fertilizers) in our country? Yes, you the homeowner. In our state, the majority of individuals who are actually applying pesticides commercially are not certified at all; rather they are doing it under the supervision (yeah, right!) of a certified applicator. The Department of Environmental Conservation has had a long-standing request of the legislature to revise the pesticides law to make everyone who makes pesticide applications certified by the State. Well, the powerful "green" lobby has put the brakes on that initiative. For decades I have witnessed both supposedly-trained applicators, and the vast untrained, don't have a clue to what I'm doing, private individuals make hundreds of applications of potent pesticides (many now pulled from the shelves due to health risk) that simply served no purpose! The chemicals were frequently applied at the wrong time (i.e. the window of opportunity for control was not there. I call these applications the "feel good" applications). Improper methodology was often the rule.

Here are a few of the problems associated with having untrained applicators, or "trained" applicators who are out for the almighty buck: poor application techniques are utilized; poor environmental conditions (wind, temperature, moisture, etc.) existed either pre-, during, or post- application; the equipment wasn't calibrated (boy, do I get blank looks when I ask the average person putting down pesticides if they calibrated their sprayer or spreader!); and the products they were using were typically old or not viable and often not even labeled for what they wished to use it for (hey, this oughta work). Not only that, frequently the problem was completely misdiagnosed. Can your neighbor tell the difference between chinch bug larvae and those of Japanese beetles? Or how about powdery and downy mildew? Worse yet, beneficial insects may be misidentified as the culprit. Does anyone other than me wonder what else they're killing when they "blanket" their turf or gardens with those powerful chemicals? Ever wonder why we are seeing fewer honeybees these days (as a former beekeeper I can assure you that I haven't seen a swarm in recent years, whereas in "the old days" my Dad and I would capture as many as 3 or 4 per season). What's happening to that complex soil food web made up of millions of microscopic microbes per tablespoon of topsoil when fungicides (and inorganic, high sodium chemical fertilizers) are applied to the lawn? I could go on and on, but I hope the point is made (I'll get down off my self-righteous soapbox!). In a word, please think twice (maybe even a third time) before you reach for that pesticide to correct a garden or landscape problem!

Next week: There is a better way!

Brad Roeller
Manager of the IES Display Gardens

Week of 14 January 2002

Bear with me faithful "From the Gifford Garden" readers, the IES flu has paid me a visit and I'm finding it increasingly hard to concentrate, but I'll give it the old college try.

OK, the ethical arguments for limiting chemical usage in landscape and garden management have been stated, it's about time to provide some insight into managing your home landscape with an eye towards environmental and personal health and safety. But first I need to mention something about conventional landscape and garden standards: just what end results are we after? I'll be the first to say that socking potent fertilizers and chemicals to your lawns and gardens will usually provide almost instant gratification in so far as achieving the desired results. Ah, the desired results — that's the crux of the matter!

We have been subjected to over two hundred years of European influence in our American gardens: palatial estates; formal clipped gardens; exotic plants from all over the world; expansive sweeps of lawns, many having been in existence for centuries. All these design traits and gardening practices followed our forefathers as they staked out their holdings in the colonies. This "estate" look still permeates today's landscape and garden design. While I certainly do enjoy a well-maintained "estate" garden, the visual standards that are inherent to them are often unrealistic and extremely difficult to achieve and maintain. Look at any popular coffee table gardening magazine: perfect formal gardens with nary a weed in sight. Plants in unnatural or contrived combinations require Herculean efforts to keep them in such pristine condition, especially when it comes to plant performance and disease and pest control. I'll be the first to admit that I am somewhat — how can I delicately put it? — somewhat a ... retentive. I can't pass a weed without pulling it, or deadhead a spent blossom. I have to resist the temptation to fertilize every plant in my care. A lawn that is an inch too high drives me crazy. My wife long ago decided that I am in need of some "horticultural therapy" to help with many of my inherent gardening traits. When it comes to limiting fertilizers and pesticides in my gardening practices, I haven't stopped cold turkey yet, but I'm working on it.

I'm convinced that, as a society, in order to seriously limit the deleterious chemical and fertilizer usage in this country our standards of what is acceptable must change. Must our lawns be "perfect"? (Actually I did achieve an almost perfect (weed-free that is) lawn at my former residence with a totally organic management strategy.) Do our planting designs have to be so contrived? Must our apples be blemish free? Speaking of that, someday I'll have to write about the Heirloom vegetable and flower peoples' work. They have devoted their horticultural careers to finding the seeds and plants our grandparents (and great grandparents) used, as they are often genetically superior to today's overbred fare. Taste, color, insect and disease resistance are in many cases far superior when compared to today's plants. But that's another story. While the majority of Americans still prefer the "coffee table" or designer look to their landscape, more and more are coming to appreciate both the look and ease of caring for a natural landscape.

With the move a couple of years ago to my new country "estate", I, being a tried-and-true hardcore gardener, started planting my favorite plants long before I addressed the needs of the house. While I dedicated space to my favorite "exotics", I conscientiously decided to plan a landscape where I would duplicate native plant communities. I simply think that many natural synergistic native plant communities found throughout the Northeast are without equal. Could I duplicate some of my favorites in my home landscape? How will I go about it? Will I be successful (i.e. receiving the ooh's and ahh's all gardeners strive for when showing off their gardens)? It's too early to say, but I'll periodically update you readers. My goal is simple: to have a 4-season, beautiful, natural landscape that requires virtually no chemicals or fertilizers, and minimal maintenance. Pretty lofty goals indeed!

Being products of the 60s, many of my generation are sympathetic to at least questioning what conventional agricultural and horticultural practices (and standards) are doing to the environment, but I fear our voices often fall on deaf political ears. Fortunately, my nephews and their friends are listening (remember the lyrics of that old CSN&Y: "Teach your children well...") and maybe someday this will translate into more sensible environmental regulations concerning chemical usage in the landscape industry.

Next week: My landscape care recommendations as summarized in "A Homeowner's Guide to Organic Landscape Care".

Brad Roeller
Manager of the IES Display Gardens

Week of 21 January 2002

Let's get down to it and talk turkey! For the next several weeks I will be discussing various ways to manage your property with an eye towards achieving a landscape that fulfills your expectations and can be maintained with minimal effort and risk to you and the environment. Over the last several years I have been asked to lecture on how we do gardening and landscape management out here without a reliance on chemical pesticides and inordinate fertilization. To address this need I summarized our practices in a horticultural lecture that I frequently present both in the classroom and on the lecture circuit. The talk is accompanied with a source and reference list for the products and horticultural references and websites we rely on to help manage our flower gardens, turf, and ornamental trees and shrubs. The talk is posted as a link on the Institute's website. The title of the talk is "Homeowner's Guide to Organic Landscape Care" and can be accessed directly by going to: http://www.ecostudies.org/Homeowners_Guide_to_Organic_Landscape_Care.pdf.

How well do you know your property? I suspect not well enough. I certainly know my little piece of heaven much better than I know the mechanical systems of my new house! In order to successfully manage your landscape, it is imperative to thoroughly acquaint yourself with the outside of your property. The old saying, "Choose the right plant for the right site," should be central with your landscaping efforts. Sounds logical, doesn't it? But how well do you know that "must have" plant that caught your eye in that gardening magazine? Perhaps more important is how well do you know the site where you intend to plant that gem! Over the next few weeks I'll be discussing various aspects of site considerations, starting with the soil. But first, the plant: how much do you really know that plant?

Before I spend my hard-earned money on a plant for my grounds or gardens, I make sure I digest all the available information about that plant that I can get my hands on. There are great references, both paper-copy and electronic, out there that will provide you with all the cultural information you need to successfully grow the plant. For those "big ticket" investments, the trees and shrubs, I always like to tour gardens or grounds that have my selections in them and see first hand the site in which they are growing. I've found most people only too happy to impart their gardening "wisdom" when asked how they got that beauty to grow in their yard. Often they're honest and reply with a, "Beats me!" but they've obviously sited the plant correctly, so take heed.

Whenever I vacation with the family, a few essential items are invariably packed: a botanical key for the area we're staying, a notepad, and a camera. As many of you know, I'm big on ornamental native plants. As mentioned last week, I am in the process of siting many of my favorite (and boy, do I have a few!) native trees and shrubs in representative plant communities on my new property. I like to experience first hand how these plants grow and prosper in the wild before I spend my hard-earned dinero on them. I suspect my wife knows (and is sympathetic with) why we spend most of our vacation time in some of the more beautiful natural settings that our great country has to offer. By mutual choice (I assume) we avoid concrete jungles, amusements parks, and the like. When experiencing the beauty of the Cape, White Mountains, or wilds of Maine, I carefully note the plant associations my landscape selections are growing in as well as the characteristics of the site: light and moisture gradients, exposure, aspect of slope, soil and drainage characteristics (yes, I also pack a trowel, no, not for pilfering plants, but for sampling the soil!), and any other miscellaneous site or growing conditions that are present. A picture will hopefully complete this documentation. A word of caution: you should temper your expectations of plant performance for plants you observe growing outside the hardiness zone you intend to plant them in. For instance, a sourwood (Oxydendron arboreum) that took your breath away in the Great Smokey Mountains or the piedmont of Georgia will simply not attain the height and stature here in dear ole' Dutchess County. So, know that plant and draw some conclusions on how it should perform on your property.

Next week: Site considerations: it all starts with the soil!

Brad Roeller
Manager of the IES Display Gardens

Week of 26 January 2002

Before I delve into the "meatier" facets of successfully managing you garden and landscape using an environmentally sensible approach, two preliminary issues must be addressed, as they are both inherent to successful management. A thorough knowledge of the cultural requirements, growth characteristics, and idiosyncrasies of the plants you wish to grow is essential for landscaping success. A hemlock placed in a foundation planting simply will not work for the requisite "evergreen" the design called for. As discussed last week, the bottom line is "know thy plant"! The second driving influence behind successful landscape and garden management is to "know thy site".

Just how familiar are you with your property. Not familiar enough I suspect. Two years in my new home and I know more about the outside of my property than the mechanical functioning of the house! Where does water collect or run off? Where are the spots that get buffeted by winds and storms? How does the sun track across your property with each season? Where are the frost pockets? Check out where the cat spends its winter days soaking up the sun. That might be the spot to plant those bulbs you wish to open first in spring. This "cat observation" tactic allowed me to successfully grow a colony of calla lilies (yes, calla lilies, Zantedeschia aethiopica, zone 8!) at my former house in the Village of Millbrook. Every property has these microclimates allowing you to extend the limits of your regional hardiness zone. Rock outcroppings, a decaying dead-fall, the "wind tunnel" created by the proximity and placement of the buildings, the inside corner of your alcove which is in the shadows year-round, etc., all these variations have an impact on the growth and performance of a plant placed within that area. Site considerations should be (but unfortunately, aren't always) central in your garden design. For example, if given a choice, I would design a flower border to run north-south rather than east-west. Plants growing in a north-south border get sun from each side and are less likely to burn than ones planted on the south side of a border that runs east and west.

You should also be aware of the proximity and types of existing plants in the areas you have selected for your introductions. Some plants are allelopathetic, exuding chemicals, usually from their roots, that inhibit growth from competing plants (ever try gardening under a black walnut?). Not much in the way of moisture and nutrients gets through the root system of turfgrass. Therefore, trees and shrubs sited in beds will outperform their counterparts placed within lawns. Shallow rooted trees, such as beech and maples, likewise aggressively sap moisture and nutrients from co-inhabitants.

Before I actually plant a plant on my little piece of heaven, I have at least 1 cigar (outdoors, by decree) over which I will attempt to match the growing requirements (and landscaping attributes) of my selections with my site characteristics. When my wife observes me on one of my cigar-inspired walk-a-bouts she knows I am becoming "one with nature" as she puts it, and new plantings will be forthcoming. What she doesn't realize is that a jaunt is but one of several that constitute my thorough analysis of the site(s) selected for individual plants. These "tours", as she refers to them, allow me both to enjoy a good cigar and to acquaint myself with all the year-round characteristics of the sites selected for the new plants. My neighbors drive by with raised eyebrows as these site inspections are often conducted on inhospitable days, and times. But, I do know where the winds blow, water accumulates, where the cold and hot spots are, which are the first (and last) areas to receive sunlight, which spots within my realm freeze (and thaw) first, what trees leaf out first (and last), which ones are deep-rooted, where is the best soil (more on this next week). You get the idea. Bottom line: think twice (or more) before you plunk down that plant and say, "I'll plant it here!"

Next week: The soil.

Brad Roeller
Manager of the IES Display Gardens

Week of 2 February 2002

OK, we've gathered all the information about the plants we hope to introduce into our landscape and can quote Dirr verbatim concerning characteristics of each. We've visited places where these beauties grow wild, and when that wasn't feasible, we visited gardens where they've been introduced. We've made nuisances of ourselves queering plants-people about their experiences with growing our selections. Yes, we do, as suggested two weeks ago, "Know thy plant"! Further, instead of being the proverbial couch potato, we've spent innumerable hours roaming our property at all times of the year, in all sorts of weather, learning all we can about our property and noting all its unique characteristics that may affect the long term success of the plantings. Yes, I do indeed know where the winter winds blow, what areas receive the morning sun, where the frost pockets lie, etc. You ask, "Am I done?" Can I run out and plant? Wellll, a little more digging (ha ha) into your site (again: "Know thy site!") is in order.

You guessed it; the soil is perhaps the single most important site-related consideration in successful introduction and maintenance of plants in your landscape. In reviewing the plant references concerning the cultural requirements of your selections, you note that the overwhelming majority of the time they say your plants want to grow in a "well drained loam". Ok, just what does that mean? First you have to know what the aggregate composition of your soil is. In other words, what percentage of sand, silt, and clay exists in your soil? To do this I suggest a simple (and fun) home soil test. All you need is a jar, some of your soil, a couple drops of non-sudsing detergent, a sharpie marker and a couple of days to wait for the results. Check out the "Soil Fractional Analysis" procedure, below. For the vast majority of plants that are suitable to grow in our region, the "ideal" soil to get the most out of the plant is indeed a loam. Good loam topsoils will be a combination of about 50% aggregate (the combination of sand, silt, and clay, is best composed of about 40% sand, 40% silt, and 20% clay) and 50 % pore space; that's right open space between the mineral aggregates. In a good functioning soil about half the pore space should be comprised of large pores filled with air, and the remaining half, small pores functioning as water holding receptacles. Luckily, most of us uplanders here in central Dutchess County are blessed with "Dutchess County topsoil", an often-used synonym for the large deposits of gravelly loam that overlay much of the County. We have the best of both worlds when it comes to our soil: a passable, albeit not rich, loam with excellent drainage characteristics. Good aggregate compositions with good draining capability (that's where the pore space comes in) are two of the most important characteristics of a "good" soil.

How do you evaluate the drainage capabilities of your soil? Easy again, here's how: Dig a hole in the area(s) you wish to plant that is approximately 1 cubic foot in dimension (1' square by 1' deep). Fill it completely with water and wait while the water drains from it. Fill it again and start the clock. If it takes less than 8 hours for the second filling to completely drain from the hole, you're generally OK in so far as drainage is concerned. Longer than that, drainage is a problem. I can think of three landscaping choices for poorly drained soils: move (I know that would be my first choice), select plants that have adapted to grow in these conditions (better turn your attention to lowland dwelling plants), or change the drainage characteristics of your soil. The last choice can be rather involved; I'd best tackle that topic in a future edition of "From the Gifford Garden". One tip however: in addition to numerous other plant-related benefits, the incorporation of organic matter into your soil will almost always improve the drainage characteristics of your soil.

Next week: More on soil and soil management.

Brad Roeller
Manager of the IES Display Gardens

Week of 9 February 2002

Lets get right back to one of my favorite topics, "dirt"! Last week I offered a couple of simple home soil tests to give you an idea of the aggregate composition of the stuff under your fingernails. The soil fractional analysis test will allow you to categorize your soil (best not to refer to soil as "dirt" if you want to appear knowledgeable). Also mentioned was a simple test (a perc test if you will) aimed at determining how well your soil drains.

The next step I recommend is to do a little soil sleuthing. Go to the nearest Cooperative Extension or Soil Conservation Service and ask to see the most recent soil survey of the county (actually, a lot of libraries carry county soil surveys). Inside these neat packets are a bunch of color-coded maps of the county allowing you to identify your property. Once you've found your site, you will note some letter coding, which corresponds to the soil unit(s) itself. Note that you may have more than one soil unit on your property. Jot these down and then find their descriptions in the soil survey book located inside the packet. For each soil unit you can now find out many of its characteristics, such as the composition of the soil, acidity, texture, depth of individual horizons and depth to bedrock, drainage characteristics, and uses and management (primarily for agricultural purposes). Good stuff to add to your growing soils knowledge! Before you get too excited, a little investigation and common sense is now called for: What is the history of the soil in the areas you want to plant, eh? Or, put another way, what has happened to that Nassau slaty silt loam since the last glacier deposited it in your neighborhood several millennia ago? Chances are that the soil around your domicile has lost its virginity when excavated and subsequently redeposited in the final grade around your house. The soil horizons (if there are any to find) have been thoroughly reconfigured and are probably indistinguishable. Most contractors will stockpile the topsoil and redistribute it around the areas of disturbance once construction is completed. Often topsoil is imported to replace or add to infertile existing soils. Try and find out the soil history of your property if possible. Also, take a look at the grading around your property with an eye towards finding what was graded (hence disturbed) and what is "virgin". It is important to test the disturbed, graded soil with the home testsmentioned last week. The properties and characteristics of the undisturbed soils are covered in the county soil survey; however, I typically "home test" them also.

Now that you have an idea about the characteristics of your soil(s), you may want to consider opening up the purse strings and spending a little money (about $17/sample) on some professional soil testing to ascertain the nutrient makeup of your soil. I like to go over to Cooperative Extension and purchase a sampling bag (instructions included) to send samples of my soil off to the Cornell Nutrient Analysis Laboratories. Along with your sample(s), you will fill out a form stating what uses you intend for the land where the samples were taken (i.e., lawn, woody ornamentals, flower gardens, etc.). Along with a complete report noting levels of macronutrients, soil acidity, salts, nitrates, organic matter content, and mucho other neat stuff, you will get their professional recommendations for any soil amendments (if necessary) and some management tips for your stated uses. Not bad! It is a good idea (common sense again) to take a composite sample from sites within the "disturbed" areas and another from the "virgin" land. I like to send in samples to the Cornell labs (there are private labs out there if you are not a fan of Big Red) every 4 to 5 years to see if my fertilization, or land use (i.e. the plantings themselves) have changed the nutrient availability in the topsoil. File those reports to track changes in your soil.

Monitor the soil pH yearly. I like to do this late in the growing season so if amendments are called for I can apply them before the onset of winter. This will allow the elemental sulfur or dolomitic limestone to break down and filter into the soil with the snowmelt. Your pH should be nicely adjusted by spring planting time.

People often ask me what is the "perfect" soil to have or strive for when managing lawns and gardens. Well, simply put I like to have topsoil with a minimum organic matter content of 5% (10% and I'm popping the champagne!) I look for a pH of around 6.5 to 7.0 for best plant performance. I like to see plenty of earthworms when I dig (5 per cubic foot is good). A "healthy" soil with plenty of microorganisms (high organic matter is a good indication of high microbial populations) will fight soil borne diseases while also ha